All Things Polar Expeditions: historic and modern day Arctic and Antarctic exploration and adventure
Polar expeditions, depending on how one defines them, date back to at least the 1400s, spanning seven centuries. The purpose of this page is to give the reader a “taster”, a listing and the accomplishment(s) of some of the more well know or otherwise significant expeditions of the day. Significance is subjective, but the goal here is to highlight expeditions that contributed a geographic, scientific, environmental, or otherwise notable achievement to the body of polar knowledge and/or culture (in the eyes of these web authors of course). A few modern day expeditions of significance are described as well. A term that bears explanation is the term “furthest north” or “furthest south”. As expeditions got closer and closer to their respective pole, a latitude record, furthest north or south on that date, was typically noted, only to be leapfrogged by a subsequent expedition at a later date. The goal of course: 90 degrees, whether N or S.Consult the two links immediately below for a full list of expeditions, whether to the north or south. Expeditions are then listed by primary country, as applicable, with an initial section of “multi-national” expeditions. It is with full realization that this is a somewhat artificial indexing system: many voyages had “international crews”, were varied in their sponsorship, from private to governmental, used vessels from a country different than the expedition’s, or were a multi-national group by design. In addition, nations of the Commonwealth of Great Britain were often lumped together. Nonetheless, there is some value in parsing out the expeditions to a primary country, as one might be interested in focusing on a specific country whether from that country or planning to visit it. Lastly, several of the modern day expeditions and records are listed on the ATP People page, under the name of the individual of interest.Arctic Expeditions-Wikipedia’s full list of arctic expeditions starting with 1472 (Didrik Pining and Hans Pothorst ), up through the Polar Row, led by Fiann Paul, in 2017. Arctic exploration was a more natural course of investigation for the northern Europeans including of course the Vikings, in the middle ages. Their exploits to the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, and ultimately North America, are legendary. Whether by design or accident, they and others pushed further north, above the Arctic circle to Spitsbergen, the Kola peninsula, the White and Barents Sea, and elsewhere. A look at the myriad expeditions make it obvious that there were many destinations to the north. In an attempt to limit the list, we have chosen to restrict arctic explorations to four groups: Greenland, the Northeast passage, the Northwest passage (and associated expeditions), and the pole itself.
Antarctic Expeditions-Wikipedia’s full list of antarctic expeditions, starting possibly with Polynesian travels to sub-antarctic Auckland in the 13 century, to Mollie Hughes, who skied from Hercules Inlet to the south pole in 2020.
Multi-national expeditions-though of variable historic relevance, the very fact that these expeditions involved and required the cooperation of multiple countries makes them significant. Only through international cooperation and multi-party treaties will the arctic and antarctic survive in a pristine state.
Norwegian British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition-just after the war, this expedition from 1949-1952 was the first that intentionally pulled together a group of scientists from multiple countries to explore the antarctic. Sailing with two vessels, the Norsel, and the Thorshovdi in support, the expedition was to measure climatic variations that occurred in the antarctic to determine if they were similar to those found in the arctic. Critical to today’s knowledge of the cause and effects of climate change, the expedition found that the world's sea-level is controlled to a large degree by the size of the antarctic ice-sheet, and it contributed to our understanding of the impact of the antarctic ice-sheets on the regulation of the world's climate. The scientists also found evidence suggesting that Queen Maud Land was once joined to southern Africa.
International Geophysical Year-this 67 country cooperative effort provided much scientific knowledge. The single monumental achievement of the IGY was the outgrowth of the Antarctic Treaty, effective June 23rd, 1961.
Commonwealth Trans-antarctic Expedition-this expedition from 1956-1958 is important for several reasons. First, it pulled together participants from multiple countries including the United States. It was the first attempt, ultimately successful, at transversing the continent since Shackleton. It was the first arrival at the pole since Amundsen and Scott in 1911 and 1912 respectively. Now here is where it gets interesting. The expedition was led by an Englishman, Sir Vivian Fuchs. Fuchs recruited New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary of Mt. Everest fame (first to climb, 1954) to lay supply depots from the Ross Sea side, much as the Ross Sea Party had done for Shackleton some 40 plus years before. Hillary decided to push on to the pole, and arrived there 16 days ahead of Fuchs and party. Just as the Norwegian had preceded the English in 1911, a New Zealander beat the English to the prize again, in 1958. Though Hillary is known as the first to the top of the world (based on altitude), he should also be known as third to the bottom of the world (based on latitude). Quite an accomplishment. First:
Overland transantarctic traverse
Arrival at the South pole by land vehicles (Hillary)
Kaspersky Commonwealth Antarctic Expedition-in 2009, celebrating 60 years of the Commonwealth, seven women representing various nations skied to the South pole. First:
Multi-country all-female antarctic expedition
Bruneian, Indian woman, Singaporean, Cypriot and New Zealand women to ski to the South Pole
Australia-all significant expeditions SOUTH
Australasian Antarctic Expedition-this expedition from 1911-1914 almost did not happen. Douglas Mawson turned down Scott’s invitation to joint the ill fated Terra Nova expedition. After getting a taste of Antarctica aboard Shackleton’s Nimrod expedition, he preferred to mount his own, aboard the SY Aurora, exploring King George V land and Adelaie land. A few notables occurred including a large number of meteorological observations, biological collections, and a significant amount of new mapping of coast line. Mawson, in an attempt to explore Oates Land, set out in November, 1912 with two colleagues. Fate beset them when one colleague, Lt. Belgrave Ninnis, fell into a crevasse, along with dogs, tent, rations and other essentials. He and Xavier Mertz were left with one week of rations and were forced to kill and eat their Husky sled dogs. Unknown at the time, was the rich concentration of vitamin A in Huskys’ livers, and Mertz succumbed from hypervitaminosis A (both were affected) Mawson continued on alone and somehow made it back to base, traveling solo for more than a month and covering 100 miles. Sadly, he arrived late by hours, the Aurora having just left with the weather preventing her return until next season. Mawson and those remaining were forced to over winter yet again, until the following summer, December, 1913. First:
Wireless communication between the Antarctica and Australia
Mapping of Macquarie Island
Discovery of a meteorite on the continent
Belgium
SOUTH
Belgian Antarctic Expedition-this early expedition, 1897-1899, is often attributed with kicking off the “heroic age” of Antarctic exploration. The Belgica, a converted Norwegian whaler and captained by Adrien de Gerlache de Gomery, became entrapped in ice in February 1898. It is not clear whether this was intentional on the part of Gerlache but regardless, the expedition became the first to overwinter in Antarctica (though not on land). The expedition is noteworthy for its collection of meteorologic and other scientific data. However, equally notable were three of Belgica’s crew, two of whom took command when Gerlache fell ill from scurvy: Roald Amundsen and Frederick Cook. Amundsen was first mate and of course went on to “first” the South pole on his Fram expedition. Cook went on to be the first to the North pole on April 21, 1908, nearly a year before Peary, That is, until he (and Peary?) were discredited. Cook is credited with saving the crew by reversing Gerlache’s ban on seal meat consumption. Cook believe correctly that seal meat would reverse the effects of scurvy, although the reason, sufficient levels of vitamin C especially found in organ meats and most beneficial when eaten raw, was unknown at the time. First:
Expedition to the South Pole for the specific purpose of the advancement of science
92 publications in the disciplines of astronomy, biology, climatology, glaciology, mapping, navigation, geology, geophysics, meteorology and oceanography
Discovery of the Antarctica midge, the only insect (and largest endemic animal) on the Antarctic mainland
Skier on the continent (Amundsen)
Use of sledges on an expedition
Full year of acquisition of meteorology data on an Antarctic expedition
Other Belgian expeditions-are of note primarily due to the lineage. The second Belgian expedition, part of the IGY of 1957-58, was led by Gerlache’s son Gaston. His son Bernard subsequently participated in an American expedition in 1972-73, completing three generations of exploration within a family.
Canada-all significant expeditions to the NORTH
Canadian Arctic Expedition-planned as an American expedition to be sponsored by the National Geographic Society and the American Museum of Natural History, this 1913-1916 exploration was ultimately sponsored by Canada. This switch happened when Canada realized there might be new territory and stake; in addition, the expedition’s captain Vilhjalmur Stefansson had renounced his American citizenship and reclaimed his Canadian-born heritage. The expedition was beset with bad luck as the winter of 1916 was particularly severe and their ship, the Karluk was besieged by ice three months in. In a controversial move, Stefansson and a small group of five abandoned the ship and after some period of time engaged another vessel to continue the expedition. The Karluk drifted west in the ice, was eventually crushed, and sunk. Those who had remained on board were able to make it to Wrangel Island north of Siberia, where they were rescued; this was due to the daring actions of Robert Bartlett, the ship's captain. With Inuit help he dogsledded 700 miles to Siberia, and eventually reached Alaska for help. Eleven of the crew died in this tragedy, called the "the greatest arctic disaster since the Franklin Expedition." That said, the expedition is generally credited with redrawing the map of northern Canada. It discovered new lands, remapped/corrected previous inaccuracies of Banks and Victoria Islands, and charted new rivers. The southern exploration party mapped the coast from Alaska to Bathurst inlet, part of the Mackenzie River. First:
Discovery of new islands: Brock, Mackenzie King, Borden, Meighen, and Lougheed Island
Parks Canada Erebus and Terror Search and Discovery-this modern day success story is spectacular for two reasons: both the result and the method. The result, Parks Canada’s discovery of Sr John Franklin’s 1845 “lost expedition” ships the Erebus and the Terror ends a 170 plus year search and opens up years of archeological exploration. However, it is the method of discovery, the use of modern technology, single and multi-beam bathymetry, side-scan sonar, and Lidar technology, combined with knowledge passed down by Inuit oral traditions, that made the finds a reality. An autonomous underwater vehicle was also leveraged in the underwater search.
The stage was set for the search in 1992 when the sites, yet undiscovered, were designated as National Historic sites. In 1997 England ceded the rights of discovery and recovery to Canada. The search started in earnest in 2008 with multiple partnerships in place; at the height of the exploration the main players were Parks Canada, the Canadian Coast Guard and its ship the Sir Wilfred Laurier, the Canadian Hydrographic Service, the Government of Nunavut, the indigenous organizations Inuit Heritage Trust and Kitikmeot Inuit Association, the Community of Gjoa Haven, and lastly the Arctic Research Foundation. Two search areas were designated: off the NW coast of King William Island where the ships were known to have been abandoned, and to the SW of the island where Inuit stories chronicled the sighting of a ship. The initial 65 sq. km surveyed was in the southern search area. Surveying picked up again in 2010, 2011, and 2012, with 150, 140, and 419 sq. km surveyed respectively. The Arctic Research Foundation, their ship the Martin Bergmann, and the Canadian Space Agency then joined the hunt. In 2013 the teams covered 486 sq. km of sea floor; the Government of Nunavut’s land-based archaeological team searched the shoreline of Erebus Bay for clues. Parks Canada’s dive boat the Investigator was engaged. Finally, in 2014, a breakthrough. Quoting from the Parks Canada web page:
“Years of searching, planning, and staring at sonar screens all paid off. On September 1, a helicopter party from Sir Wilfrid Laurier led by Doug Stenton found a piece of rusted metal on an island in Wilmot and Crampton Bay. They also found a rounded piece of wood. Archaeologists soon identified the metal object as a davit pintle from a British Navy ship, and the wooden artifact as a hawse plug. On September 2, the UAT, working from its boat Investigator, shifted its search closer to the shore finds. UAT archaeologist Ryan Harris, who had led the search since 2008, was in front of the sonar screen—and watched with astonishment as the image of an intact ship sitting on the seafloor came into view.”
Of course, the vessel turned out to be the Erebus, with discovery of the Terror following in 2016, found off the northwest coast of King William Island. Its discovery was equally fascinating and due to a serendipitous chance recounting of a story: Gjoa Haven Inuk Samy Kogvik, aboard the Martin Bergmann on his first day, was recounting a story to Adrian Schimnowski, the Arctic Research Foundation’s operations director, of having seen and photographed a mast sticking out of the ice in Terror Bay while on a hunting trip to the region. On its way to a rendezvous with the Sir Wilfrid Laurier, the Martin Bergmann took a detour to the bay and with sonar deployed sailed right over what turned out to be the Terror.
England-few countries put their heart, soul, and pocketbooks into polar exploration as did England, especially during the 75 years spanning from the mid-19th century, up through the first quarter of the 20th century. At the height of its powers up through WWI, and with the Napoleonic wars behind it, England had the wherewithal to jump into the “race for the poles” full force. Unfortunately for them and the men involved, they suffered significant tragedy at both latitudes.
Points NORTH
John Ross Northwest Passage Expedition-this was the first of three voyages by John Ross, in an attempt to find the Northwest Passage. After sailing from London in April of 1818 and spending time circling Baffin Bay, Ross eventually headed in the right direction, entering Lancaster Sound. He was stymied by his discovery of the “Croker Mountains” which blocked his way; they were later disproven as a mirage and Ross was discredited. A second attempt in 1829 led to greater success. After several stops and starts, along with his nephew James Clark Ross and others aboard Victory, Ross reached further west. Alas, Victory was lost and Ross and team traveled over ice to rescue by a passing ship, the Isabella. Ross’ last expedition was in search of Franklin, 1850. First:
European to reach the magnetic north pole-James Clark Ross
Charting of the Clarence Islands, originally Beaufort Islands
John Franklin's Coppermine Expedition-1819-1822-the overland part of a two pronged plan, along with William Parry’s retracing of John Ross’ steps by sea: this was England’s attempt to nail down the Northwest Passage. The expedition was ill conceived, poorly planned, under staffed, and under funded. Not surprisingly, this led to its disastrous outcome: the starvation and near-death of Franklin and his men. Parry, who sailed in 1819 aboard the HMS Hecla and HMS Griper, had more success, benefitting from a warm year and reaching as far west as Melville Island before hitting ice in the McClure Strait. First:
Furthest west through Canadian Arctic archipelago (until 1852, Belcher’s western expedition)
John Franklin's Northwest Passage Expedition-coming off a very successful expedition to Antarctica from 1839-1843, the Erebus and Terror were not so fortunate on their northward sail only two years later under the command of Sir John Franklin. This expedition is probably one of the most written about of all polar explorations; that is certainly true for 19th century polar expeditions. Formerly governor in the penal colony in Van Diemen’s Land (now Tasmania), Franklin at the age of 59 was a questionable choice as expedition leader. Though he had significant polar experience from previous Arctic expeditions, Franklin was the fifth or sixth choice of Sir John Barrow, second Secretary of the Admiralty and a strong proponent of nailing down the route of the Northwest Passage. Franklin, along with Francis Crozier (Captain of the Terror) and their crews, set sail from Kent on May 19th, 1945. After two months of sailing, and the last sighting of the expedition in Lancaster Sound, they were never seen again by Europeans. Aside from the myriad details and conjecture that can be read from multiple sources, three facts stand out. The first is the utter disregard by the British (and Europeans in general) of the information provided about the expedition by the Inuits, delivered primarily by John Rae. How much of this was due to the influences of Lady Franklin, Sir John’s widow, and/or Charles Dickens, is unclear. England could not stomach the possibility that the crew had engaged in cannibalism as Rae reported. The second point of interest is the contribution of tin/lead solder, used to seal the the foodstuffs used on the expedition. Studies of the bones and especially the hair from Torrington, Hartnell, and Braine, from Beechey Island, as well as the skeleton from Booth Point, showed very high lead levels which would have contributed to the crew’s demise. In the case of Torrington, levels were in the 600 ppm range. The other issue with the tins was their poor solder quality, with the end cap solder not sealing at the side seam. This resulted in an incomplete seal, and almost certainly contributed to food spoilage and a shortage of rations. The victualing contract had just been awarded on April 1st, to Stephan Goldner, and delivery by this new contractor was way behind when Franklin got his sailing instructions on May 5th. What if the Admiralty had not chosen a new contractor for the preparation and manufacture of the expedition’s rations or if the contractor had had more time to manufacture and deliver the tins of food? Would it have made a difference? Finally, it is interesting to conjecture what the fate of the expedition would have been had the maps been correct and Franklin known that King William Island was in fact an island, (proven by Rae) and not part of the mainland as he believed. Would he have sailed down the eastern side of King William which would have likely been ice free, then in between the mainland and the island? Instead, thinking he had no choice but to sail down the western side, he sealed his fate: entrapment of the Erebus and Terror in the ice.
Franklin Rescue Expeditions-for over a decade multiple expeditions searched for Franklin, his crew, and the ships Erebus and Terror, both by land and by sea. These expeditions were sponsored by the British government, private individuals, and multiple countries including the US. This is a list the more notable rescue expeditions: Rae-Richardson Expedition (1848), McClure Arctic Expedition (1850) First Grinnell Expedition (1850-1851), Inglefield Isabella Expedition (1852), Belcher Assistance Expedition (1852-1854), Second Grinnell Expedition(1853-1855), McClintock Arctic Expedition (1857-1859). Much of the continued urgency was implored by Franklin’s widow, Lady Jane Franklin who sponsored a total of five expeditions. No doubt, she was a force in her own right, raising money to sponsor her own expeditions and once exhausted, reaching out to the president of the United States for help. In addition to the above discoveries of skeletal remains, multiple expeditions accumulated oral stories, artifacts, and final messages that had been left by the expedition indicating a southerly march, and a likely return to ship at some point, followed by another overland attempt to reach safety. There is little doubt that a combination of factors lead to their demise, including malnutrition, scurvy, tuberculosis, pneumonia, and almost without doubt, the above lead poisoning. Inuit stories casting a negative light were generally discounted. Perhaps one of the most interesting stories connecting then and now (prior to the discovery of Erebus and Terror in 2014 and 2016) is that of the Resolute Desk. One of the more disastrous rescue missions funded by the Admiralty was that which was launched in 1852 under the command of Edward Belcher. The last and largest of the Admiralty rescue expeditions, Belcher sailed with five ships in April, 1850. Over four years later, Belcher returned with only the HMS North Star. One of the abandoned ships, the HMS Resolute under the command of Captain Kellet, which had originally sailed west and reached Melville Island, then sailed east and became stuck in pack ice; she was abandoned. At some point on her own, she later freed herself and drifted to a position in the Davis Strait, between Baffin Island and Greenland. In September, 1855 this “ghost ship” was sighted and the Resolute was retrieved by a whaler out of New London CT, the George Henry under the command of James Buddington. and towed to port. At the recommendation of Henry Grinnell Congress voted to restore the Resolute and return her to England as a gift (and to improve the strained relations between the two countries at the time) in 1856. After a period of years, in 1879, Queen Victoria had the Resolute demolished at Chatham Dockyards, and three desks were produced from her timbers. The largest, The Resolute Desk, was gifted back to the Rutherford B Hayes in 1880 and has adorned the Oval Office for most of the subsequent presidents. And what of the other two desks? A small desk was made for the widow of Grinnell; the desk was eventually gifted to the New Bedford Whaling Museum in 1938 and resides in New Bedford MA. The other was made for the Queen and was on board HMY Victoria and Albert: it now resides in the Royal Collection.
British Trans-Arctic Expedition-this modern day expedition, from 1968-1969, and led by Sir Wally Herbert, lays claim to the first arrival at the North pole on foot. No one disputes the team’s April 6th, 1969 arrival, following spending a winter on the ice. Nor does anyone question the 3,800 mile trek from Alaska to Spitsbergen, an incredible accomplishment by Herbert and his team, including Allan Gill, Dr. Roy "Fritz" Koerner, and Dr. Kenneth Hedges. What is in question is whether Herbert can lay claim (Ralph Plaisted’s snowmobile success in 1968 aside) to having been the first to reach the pole on foot. Herbert’s book published 20 years later, following a commission by the National Geographic Society and review of Peary’s diary, concluded that Peary had been in error. But of course Herbert had skin in the game, Others, recently, have sided with Peary’s claimed accomplishments. We will never know the truth.
Points SOUTH
Sir Francis Drake-England’s historic circumnavigation from 1577-1580, aboard the Golden Hinde, aka the Pelican and five other ships. Only Pelican remained after making it through the Strait of Magellan, and it is not at all clear how far south Drake was pushed. Most historians do not believe he sailed around Cape Horn or into what was named in his honor, the Drake Passage.
Captain James Cook Second Expedition-another famous Englishman it was Cook’s second expedition, 1772-1775, aboard the HMS Resolution that is of polar relevance. First:
Crossing of the Antarctic Circle-January, 1773
Furthest south-71° 10′ S
James Weddell Expeditions-a sealer who, sailing the American built brig Jane made three voyages to the Antarctic in the 1820s. First:
Discovered the Weddell Sea
Furthest south-74°15′S
James Clark Ross Expedition-this historic expedition of James Clark Ross from 1839-1843 was to study primarily magnetism and to find the magnetic south. Aboard the two bomb-ships Erebus and Terror of later Franklin fame, Ross discovered and named multiple important areas. First:
Discovered Victoria land, the Transantarctic mountains, the Ross sea and ice shelf, Ross seal, volcanos (named Erebus and Terror) on Ross Island
Furthest south-78° 10′ S
British Antarctic Expedition-Southern Cross-from 1898-1900 aboard the Southern Cross , this early kickoff to the “heroic age of antarctic exploration” was under the command of Carsten Borchgrevink who of course was half Norwegian. Most of the expedition centered around Cape Adare and the Ross Sea area. Borchgrevink never was sufficiently recognized, likely for five reasons: the expedition was privately rather than publicly sanctioned/financed, England had its eyes on the officially sponsored upcoming Scott Discovery expedition, the Southern Cross was a Norwegian built vessel, Borchgrevink was born in Norway, only half English on his mother’s side, and his leadership skills were questioned. First:
To overwinter on the continent
Landing on the Ross Ice shelf
To use dogs and sledges in antarctic travel, traveling 10 miles on the shelf
Furthest south-78° 50'S
British National Antarctic Expedition-Discovery-Captain Robert Scott’s first, and successful expedition aboard the RRS Discovery, 1901-1904. This expedition was yet another actor on the stage of the heroic age of antarctic exploration. Though England had laid off polar exploration after the Franklin debacle and aftermath of rescue missions, Borchgrevink’s Southern Cross expedition initiated a number of countries jumping back in the game; England could not be outdone, assigning a mix of science and exploration objectives to the mission. The expedition is known for starting a rivalry between Scott and Shackleton; the latter was sent home after suffering severe scurvy suffered on a three month long “southern journey” that included Scott, Shackleton, and Dr. Edward Wilson. Other players of importance over the next decade arrived on the scene with this expedition, including Frank Wild, William Lashly, Thomas Crean, Edgar Evans and Ernest Joyce. First:
Discovered Edward VII land
Discovered the Polar Plateau-first sledge journey on the plateau
Charting of the Transantarctic Mountains
Found emperor penguin colony at Cape Crozier
Determined that Ross Ice Barrier was a floating ice shelf
Found a leaf fossil that helped to establish Antarctica's relation to the Gondwana super-continent
Calculation of location of the South Magnetic Pole with reasonable accuracy
Discovered the anti-scorbutic effects of fresh seal meat
Furthest south-82° 17′S
British Antarctic Expedition-Nimrod-make no mistake, Ernest Shackleton in this 1907 expedition had one primary objective for this expedition: first to the South pole. That he got just shy of 100 nautical miles from 90 degrees S, so close yet so far away, is a tribute to him and his team. As the four were critically short on food, already cut to half rations, they would certainly have perished upon the return had he pushed on. As it was, they barely survived the trek back to their Cape Royds hut. Nonetheless, Shackleton returned with several noteworthy accomplishments under his belt, along with a trove of scientific information. This was due in large part to the fine scientific team he assembled, including James Murray, Raymond Priestly, and latecomers Douglas Mawson, and Edgewood David. First:
To climb Mt. Erebus
To the South magnetic pole (David and northern party)
Furthest south-88° 23' S
To leave whisky under hut floor boards
British Antarctic Expedition-Terra Nova-Captain Robert Scott embarked on his second voyage south in 1910 with plans to complete what Shackleton had started. Adding injury to insult, he planned to follow Shackleton’s route, piercing the Transantarctic mountain range through the Beardmore glacier, continuing across the polar plateau to the pole. Volumes have been written about this expedition, including commentary about Scott’s lack of planning, decision to go to the pole with five rather than four as planned, debate over the wisdom of the use of ponies and motor sledges vs. dogs as the primary means of transport, his exclusionary leadership style, and the frequent diversions of the team that likely led to their less than ideal physical (and mental?) condition when it came time for the “southern journey”. An example of this was the “winter journey” during which Cherry-Garrard, Bowers, and Wilson, went in search of emperor penguin eggs to Cape Crozier. Certainly not part of a South pole objective. Another diversion was the decision to have a “northern party” under the command of Victor Campbell. That said, unlike Amundsen who had a singular goal, the expedition did achieve some scientific successes. However, their primary goal, the pole, was lost to Amundsen by 34 days. The selected party of five: Scott, Wilson, Bowers, Oates, and Evans, having passed Shackleton’s furthest south on January 9th, made it to the pole on January 17th. They knew they had been beaten by the Norwegian prior to their arrival. Sadly, they all perished upon their return, first Evans near the bottom of Beardmore, then Oates who sacrificed himself for the good of the remaining. Finally, Scott, Wilson, and Bowers succumbed a mere 11 miles from One Ton depot, likely on March 12, 1912, and were later discovered, on November 12th, by the search party launched by Atkinson the following spring. Scott’s last diary entry: “Every day we have been ready to start for our depot 11 miles away, but outside the door of the tent it remains a scene of whirling drift. I do not think we can hope for any better things now. We shall stick it out to the end, but we are getting weaker, of course, and the end cannot be far. It seems a pity but I do not think I can write more. R. Scott. Last entry. For God's sake look after our people.”
The death of Scott and his four colleagues dampened somewhat recognition of the success of Amundsen and certainly influenced Britain’s and others’ reactions at the time. Over the last 100 plus years, historians and authors continue to compare the two expeditions, debating the relative contributions of the myriad factors that resulted in their success and failure, the personalities of the two men, and their styles.
Imperial Transantarctic Expedition-having been beaten to the pole times two, Shackleton needed another goal. His 1914-1916 expedition aboard Endurance, was to cross the antarctic continent. This required a supporting Ross Sea Party, aboard the SY Aurora under the command of Aeneas Mackintosh, to lay depots from the Ross Sea side whilst Shackleton and team would start their journey from the Weddell Sea. All went south (no pun intended) as the Endurance, after leaving Plymouth in August 1914, and spending a month in South Georgia before heading south, became entrapped in ice trying to reach Vahsel bay in Luitpold land. SY Aurora had major difficulties as well, not the least of which was trying to get under way from Australia; it finally sailed in December 1914. Mackintosh’s troubles continued, but they paled by comparison to Shackleton’s need to abandon ship on February 24th, 1915. They set up on pack ice and drifted with the ship until its break up on October 27th. The salvaged supplies and the three lifeboats, one of which was the James Caird were hurriedly off-loaded and the camping continued. No one took the downing of the Endurance harder than the shipwright Henry McNeish for Shackleton had given the order to shot all remaining animals, including McNeish’s beloved cat Mrs. Chippy. After an abandoned plan to march to safety they watched Endurance sink to her grave on November 21st. A second failed march, rapidly disappearing rations, and watching a series of possible island destinations pass by culminated in an ice break up on April 8th; the crew had to be ready to take to the boats at a moments notice. One day later Shackleton gave the order, however due to their physical condition (both the boats and the crew), the weather, and the winds, Shackleton was forced to make the undesirable decision to head for the closer Elephant Island: desolate, uninhabited, and not normally visited by whalers or sealers. Five days later the three boats had somehow made Elephant, but Shackleton knew he would have to make yet another journey to “get help” if the he and his crew were to survive. After modifying the James Caird to improve its seaworthiness, Shackleton, Worsley, McNeish, Crean, Vincent, and McCarthy departed for South Georgia in search of “civilization” and rescue on April 24th. Frank Wild was left in charge of the remaining crew, likely wondering if ever he would see “the boss” again. Miraculously, after 14 days of fighting gales, high seas, and an ice-laden Caird, and with near continuous baling, the voyagers were successful in reaching South Georgia thanks to the navigation genius of Frank Worsley. During the transit, much of which was by dead reckoning, Worsley was only able to take three sightings to determine position. A last ditch effort by mother nature to prevent their landing was thrown at them; a hurricane blasted them for two days before they could land. Needing to get to a whaling station for help, they elected to cross the uncharted interior to Stromness, some 36 miles distant. Shackleton did not realize that the closer station at Prince Olav Harbour, only six miles away, was in fact inhabited. Shackleton, Crean, and Worsley set out in the early morning of May 19th. Somehow they survived multiple detours and dangers, completing the “double” of the Caird voyage and an overland journey on May 20th; the rest is history. Sadly, and ironically, the only crew deaths came from the Ross Sea party: Mackintosh and Hayward walked to their end in a blizzard trying to reach Cape Evans from Hut point. All of Shackleton’s men were rescued from South Georgia and Elephant Islands.
And what of Shackleton’s ship Endurance? The polar rated vessel S.A. Agulhas II slipped her moorings on February 5th, 2022 from Cape Town. About a month later a SAAB submersible brought along for one purpose, located her at 3008 meters, only about four miles distant from the location recorded by Frank Worsley prior to her demise in 1915. Learn more, and see stunning photos at endurance22.org. Thankfully, she will remain undisturbed in her grave, as a historic monument, due to Antarctic treaty which protects her. Sadly, this first reappearance of Endurance comes at a time when the world is at war, directly or indirectly, in Ukraine. The last time she was seen by the world at large was also during wartime: when she shipped south from Australia in December 1914. When will we ever learn?
Shackleton-Rowett Expedition-Shackleton’s last expedition, aboard the Quest, 1921-1922. Originally planning to go explore the Beaufort Sea area in the Arctic, Shackleton redirected south when Canadian sponsorship fell through. Of note, the expedition did outfit itself with significant new technology such as a heated crow’s nest, however much of it did not work or was not deployed (aeroplane, 220V long range wireless). The southerly voyage was otherwise without historic importance except for one significant piece: the death of Shackleton, attributed to a heart attack. He first became ill the day prior to leaving Rio after an engine overhaul. The day after arrival at Grytviken, South Georgia, early in the morning on the 5th of January, 1922, one of the surgeons. Alexander Macklin. went to his cabin. Shackleton complained of significant back and facial pain. Following a row with Macklin, with comments about “the boss’” alcohol consumption, Shackleton succumbed. Cause of death was listed as “Atheroma of the Coronary arteries and Heart failure”. Whether Shackleton had an acute coronary event at that time will never be known with certainty, but it is likely. His wife Emily, realizing Shackleton’s true love, asked that he be buried on South Georgia for final resting, rather than return him home to London . Shackleton’s grave, along with that of trusted friend Frank Wild, can be visited at the cemetery in Grytviken. His shipmates aboard Quest also erected a memorial to him, located at Hope Point, King Edward Cove on South Georgia. It sits on a bluff across the cove from the cemetery, overlooking the inlet to the cove.
Alexandra Shackleton Expedition-a daring 2012-2013 re-enactment of the Shackleton’s James Caird “double”: the sailing of the little boat from Elephant Island to South Georgia, and the interior crossing of South Georgia to Stromness. Tim Jarvis and colleagues used vintage equipment and clothing to pull of this feat, still amazing in the 21st century.
France-multiple expeditions were undertaken, but two are of historical significance
Points South-French Antarctica Expeditions-the French conducted at least five historic expeditions, the first one in 1772 during King Louis XV’s reign. The two sailings of significance were from 1837-1840 under the leadership of Captain Jules Dumont d'Urville aboard the Astrolabe. Hsailed and named the Adélie Coast which he named after his wife. Early experiments suggested the location of the magnetic south pole. From 1904-1907 Jean-Baptiste Charcot sailed on the third French expedition, then again on the fourth expedition. Several new lands were discovered and mapped. Charcot’s name may best be remembered by the disease Charcot-Marie Tooth disease, named in part after his father a famous neurologist who helped first describe the disease. It is one of the most common inherited neurologic disorders.
Germany-early to arrive in the sub-Antarctic region, Germany established a base on South George during the International Polar Year, 1882-1883
Points South
First German Antarctic Expedition-from 1901-1903 under the leadership of Erich von Drygalski, or Gauss Expedition as it was called, was overshadowed by the concurrent Scott Discovery expedition. The expedition was entrapped in the ice for 14 months. Nonetheless, there were a few significant events for which Drygalski did not receive sufficient recognition at the time. First:
Discovered and named King Wilhelm II land
Volcano Gaussberg
Use of a hot air balloon
Second German Antarctic Expedition-led by the Navy’s Wilhelm Filchner, this expedition sailed from Bremerhaven in May of 1911. The expedition was to determine if the Antarctica was composed of two land masses with a strait in between. From the start the expedition was besieged by personnel difficulties between the ship’s command, under Richard Vahsel who had been second officer about Gauss, and Filchner. This split affected the crew as well. Ironically, things came to a head after a disagreement between Vahsel and Filchner over an encampment site at what is now called Vahsel Bay. After being frozen in ice for eight months, with further degeneration of crew relations and the death of Vahsel, the ship Deutschland arrived back at Grytviken, South Georgia. Filcher was ordered home, and declined later polar invitations from others. First:
Discovered and named the Luitpold Coast
Deepest penetration into the Weddell Sea
Establishment of the circulating Weddell Gyre
Discovery of Vahsel bay
Discovered the Filchner Ice shelf, suggesting Antarctica as only one land mass
Norway-few countries surpass Norway in its polar explorations and accomplishments; that is no less true today when you look at the accomplishments of Liv Arensen or Erling Kagge
Points North-Roald Amundsen is well known for his southern exploits. However, prior to Amundsen, there were several earlier northern explorers. And that does not even count early Viking voyages to multiple regions above the Arctic Circle
Nansen's Fram Expedition-following his first Arctic voyage aboard Viking, and successful “first inland crossing of Greenland” in 1888, Fridtjof Nansen set his sights on the north pole. He came up with a novel method to reach it: encase oneself in ice and take advantage of the east to west natural “polar drift” current in the Arctic, a theory that he had read about while working at the museum in Bergen. Evidence for this had been bolstered by discovery of the USS Jeanette off the Greenland coast, following its sinking far to the east in 1881. The concept of deliberately allowing a ship to be frozen in ice was deemed lunacy by some, but supported as a novel approach by others. The Fram was built for just such a purpose, and launched in October of 1892. The expedition sailed seven months later with the intent of leveraging the northeast passage across the top of Siberia, then entering the pack ice. This occurred in the Laptev sea at a position of 78°49′N, 132°53′E. The drift began, but unfortunately moved Fram more west than north, towards Spitsbergen. Nansen realized that the ship was not headed towards the pole so decided to “jump ship”; he would go over the ice to the north pole. He parted ways with Fram and crew on March 14th, 1895 after months of training; accompanying Nansen was an expert dogsled driver: Hjalmar Johansen. After three weeks Nansen realized his ski/dogsled approach was futile; he and Johansen would run out of food. They elected to retreat to Franz Joseph Land. During this time those remaining on Fram continued a second drift, gathering significant scientific data. The ship eventually encountered open water and sailed to Spitsbergen. Ultimately, and with great difficulty Nansen was successful in reaching Franz Josef Land and ultimately Cape Flora. After recuperation from their journey, they were eventually able to gain passage on the Windward, arriving in Vardø on August 13th, 1896. After the return of Fram, her crew, and Nansen, the expedition faced scrutiny. Not surprisingly, Nansen faced criticism for abandoning his ship and crew. First:
Furthest north-86°13.6′N
Proof of the polar drift theory
Amundsen Northwest Passage Expedition-the fabled northwest passage was finally sailed in 1906 by Roald Amundsen and crew. The ship they used, the tiny Gjøa, had a shallow draft allowing Amundsen to hug the coasts of the various islands he hopped going west to east. As important as the voyage was the time he spent amongst the Netsilik Inuits. They taught him indigenous skills, which he later leveraged in planning for his south pole expedition. Amundsen’s take aways: how to use dogs and sleds effectively for travel, and how to leverage the natural insulating value of animal furs/skins instead of heavy parkas. First:
To sail the Northwest passage
Points South
Carl Anton Larsen Expedition-this noteworthy first Norwegian expedition to Antarctica took place from 1892-1894 aboard the Jason. Of note, Larsen also captained during the first Swedish expedition of 1901-1903. First:
Discovery of fossils on the continent
To ski on the continent
Started the whaling industry in Antarctica
Founder of Grytviken, starting the whaling station; erected a southerly Lutheran church (in which Shackleton’ service was conducted upon his death in 1922)
Henrik Bull Expedition-this was Norways second foray to the Antarctic, with Bull and crew sailing aboard the Antarctic. The expedition lacks significant note except for two points: Carsten Borchgrevink was aboard (later leader of the Southern Cross expedition) and Bull, Borchgrevink and others landed at Cape Adare, claiming they were the first to set foot on the mainland of Antarctica on January 24th, 1895 (may have been John Davis, 1821, though not well substantiated, and likely was Mercator Cooper in 1852 on Oates Coast).
Amundsen's South Pole Expedition-the Norwegian expedition that all remember, since Amundsen was successful in his quest of the south pole., arriving on December 14th, 1911. The Norwegian had been successful in navigating the Northwest Passage and stated he was returning to the Arctic. However, Cook’s and Peary’s claims of success reaching the north pole caused him to look southward. He kept his true destination a secret until Madeira (though not picked up by England), not only to keep Scott guessing, but also to keep his creditors thinking they were getting what they had paid for. Amundsen left Oslo about the Fram, of Nansen fame, in June, 1910. After the Madeira stop, he revealed the true destination to the crew and headed for the Ross ice shelf, Bay of Wales. Amundsen was single minded in his pursuit of the pole. His minimalist style, use of tried and true methods of transport, meticulous planning, and careful choice of crew and companions (Hjalmar Johansen excepted) all led to success. Two other factors certainly contributed. Most importantly, Amundsen spent the years leading up to the expedition learning valuable skills from indigenous northern people that he could later apply to his expeditions. Rather than “fight” the cold and snow, he learned how to capitalize on what it had to offer. An example was learning the value of loose fitting fur clothing when skiing, a strenuous activity, so as to avoid perspiration buildup. Secondly, Amundsen chose a crew with expertise in the skills he knew would be needed during the expedition; an example was the selection of Olav Bjaaland a champion skier, or Sverre Hassel who was an expert dog handler. In the end, there were no doubt multiple factors which contributed to Amundsen’s success at beating Scott to the pole by 34 days. Over the last 100 plus years, historians and authors continue to compare the two expeditions, debating the relative contributions of the myriad factors that resulted in their success and failure, the personalities of the two men, and their styles. First:
To the south pole
To set foot on King Edward VII Land
Russia-given their geographic location one would expect that Russia’s primary polar interests would lie to the north. However, their antarctic explorations have been prodigious as well
Points South
First Russian Antarctic Expedition-this expedition involving two vessels, the Vostok and Mirny from 1819-1821, is generally attributed to Fabian Gottlieb Thaddeus von Bellingshausen though it is important to point out that Mikhail Lazarev was a co-leader. In addition to being Russia’s entry into the antarctic, the expedition holds historic significance for being one of the expeditions variably attributed to having first sited the Antarctic continent. One of the confounding factors to the detriment of the expedition’s “believability” was the lack of scientists aboard. Much like the shifting Amundsen-Scott debate throughout the decades, the honor of first siting has been variably attributed to this expedition and those of Nathaniel Palmer, Edward Bransfield, and William Smith. To this day, we do not know with certainty and in reality it is of little importance at this point First:
Sighting of Antarctica (maybe)
Discovery of multiple new islands and the west coast of South Georgia
Subsequent Russian expeditions-there have been close to 40 Russian expeditions since the early days
Scotland
Scottish National Antarctic Expedition-the SNAE of 1902-1904, under the direction of William Speirs Bruce and aboard the Scotia, got poor press. The team left Troon, Scotland in November, 1902, picking up a gift of two barrels of Guinness porter in Kingston, Ireland (south of Dublin) along the way. The expedition, both led by a scientist and brimming with a complement of six scientists, was a success by all objective measures. This of course included consumption of the Guinness on MidWinter day 1903, the water had frozen, leaving a very potent alcoholic brew that was drawn off to the delight of all. Overall, there were thousands of eggs, skins, fishes, and rocks brought back for analysis. Significant surveying was accomplished, especially in the region of Coats Land. Reasons for Bruce’s post-voyage non-recognition, including the withholding of the RGS Polar Medal, are likely myriad: Bruce, though London born was a Scottish nationalist; the expedition itself was Scotland organized and funded; Bruce had had a falling out with Clement Markham of the RGS in advance of the expedition; Scotia sailed at the same time as Scott’s popular Discovery expedition (in fact Bruce had applied for the Discovery but was rebuffed by Markham); Bruce was an introverted scientist and lacked both political and public relation skills (his charisma was described by Speak (2003) “as prickly as the Scottish thistle itself”); the expedition was science-centric rather than adventure/goal-centric, e.g. he wasn’t after the south pole prize; in fact he disdained such endeavors) First:
Permanent meteorological station, located at Laurie Island, South Orkneys
Establishment of a post office
Description of seven new genera and 24 new species
212 new invertebrates identified in post-expedition publications
United States-though late to the game compared to its European neighbors, America has been a front runner in polar exploration and research in the latter half of the 20th and 21st century
Points North
Polaris Expedition-this American attempt at the north pole, from 1871-1873, was led by Charles Francis Hall. Hall had achieved fame earlier in the century while searching for the lost Franklin expedition, but he was no expedition leader. The expedition was rife with mismanagement, disagreements, alcohol, and finally death of its leader. Hall’s mysterious death may have been due to arsenic poisoning by his chief scientist, due to competition over one famous sculptor they both met in New York: Lavinia Ellen "Vinnie" Ream Hoxie. Of note, Vinnie sculpted the famous Abraham Lincoln statue found in the capital rotunda in Washington DC. The expedition failed at several polar attempts. First: furthest north by ship-82° 29′ N.
U.S. Arctic Expedition, USS Jeanette-this failed expedition to the north pole is noteworthy for several reasons. Led by the Navy’s LCDR George W. De Long aboard the ship USS Jeanette, the goal was to approach the pole from the Pacific, sailing east from the Barents Sea. At the time, it was believed that the pole was surrounded by a temperate sea, though this was actually debunked (unbeknownst to De Long) prior to the sailing of the expedition; the goal was to test this theory. On July 8th, 1879 the ship left San Francisco amid fanfare. Two months later they were entrapped in ice near Herald Island in the Chukchi sea, and drifted for nine months; finally the ship sank on June 13th, 1881. This forced De Long and his crew to make a daring and heroic trek over the ice, life boats in tow, headed for the Lena Delta. In the end, of the 33 crew only 13 survived; De Long was not among them. The survivors returned to New York between May and September, 1882. A naval enquiry ensued and De Long, despite dispute, was deemed to have acted honorably. The expedition ultimately lent proof to the theory of a continuous ocean current flowing from east to west across the polar sea; in June, 1884, the Jeannette was located near the south-western corner of Greenland. A monument to the expedition and her crew can be visited at the US Naval academy in Annapolis Maryland.
Frederick Albert Cook claimed to have reached it on April 21, 1908, with two Inuit men, Ahwelah and Etukishook, but he was unable to produce convincing proof and his claim is not widely accepted.
Robert Peary North Pole Expedition-this followed several other explorations to both Greenland and the Arctic (1886, 1891, 1898, and 1905), during which a variety of claims were made by Peary that were later disputed or found simply to not exist (e.g. his 1899 “discovery” of "Jesup Land" and his 1906 “sighting” of Crocker Land). For this final polar push, Peary set out from New York on July 6th, 1908. After reaching Ellesmere Island, he pushed on to the pole, leaving Ellesmere on the last day of February, 1909. Peary traveled with five assistants, but only he and (perhaps) Matthew Henson had the navigation skills to validate their progress and “furthest north”. Henson, of course, was loyal to the core to Peary. On April 6th, 1909 Peary and party were presumably camped three miles from the pole; Henson scouted ahead and returned, stating "I think I'm the first man to sit on top of the world.” Peary was not happy that he had not been the first to arrive and there is some suggestion that he had planned (but lost the opportunity) to ditch his fellow travelers so that he alone could be first to the pole. We will never know if his team reached the pole as some claim, or whether he falsified his sightings, as stated by Sir Wally Herbert.
Flight over the pole-no one can dispute the accomplishments of Admiral Byrd during his storied career, including two world wars, exploration of both polar regions, and receipt of the Medal of Honor by President Coolidge on March 5th, 1927. Byrd’s almost 16 hour 1926 Fokker F.VIIa/3m flight from Svalbard aboard the Josephine Ford, that led to instant stardom and the medal of Honor, was followed by controversy. Issues of plane speed, sextant readings, and erased log entries (released 1996) all point to Byrd having not reached the pole, but instead turning back due to an engine oil leak. And of course, who else should sail over the north pole just three days later on May 12, 1926: the airship Norge and none other than Roald Amundsen and friends.
Points South
John Davis Expedition-the sealing ship Cecilia, under the command of John Davis, purports to have put in a landing at Hughe’s Bay on February 7th, 1821. We will never know with certainty whether it was he and his men, those of Mercator Cooper aboard Levant in August, 1851, some or all of the party of Johan Bull and others aboard the sealing ship Antarctic at Cape Adare in January, 1895, or a crew from another vessel that first landed humans on the last discovered continent.
Byrd early Antarctic Expeditions-Byrd led three early expeditions to the Antarctic: 1928-1930, 1934, and 1939-1940. Only his first expedition had significant merit. First:
Flight to the south pole, November 28th, 1929
Boy scout to Antarctica, Paul Allman Siple (accompanied Byrd on all of his expeditions)
Byrd later Antarctic Expeditions-these were both military funded expeditions, the former essentially an armada of sips and sailers, the latter prior to the International Geophysical Year, 1956-1957. This last Byrd expedition established US bases at McMurdo Sound, the Bay of Whales, and the south pole.